摘要
雙語互通(bilingualism)是人類社會的常態,不過,近年來世界語言急劇流失,世界各地都有單語化的危機。傳統的語言教育通常以單語原則進行(Howatt, 1984):強調使用目標語,排除第一語言的使用,讓學生以目標語思考,防止第一語言的干擾。Cummins (2007: 222-223)認為這樣的單語教學時根據三項相互關聯的單語教學假設,包括:(一)“直接方法”(direct method):教學時僅用目標語,無需依靠學生的第一語言;(二)“禁止翻譯”(no translation):語言課中不應該有第一語言和目標語之間的翻譯;(三)“一分為二”(two solitudes)在浸淫及雙語課程中,這兩種語言要嚴格的分離。這些假設的共同點就是排除學生從家裡帶來的母語,完全忽略母語的教育價值和母語教學的權利,常常導致學會華語、卻失去母語的削減式雙語現象。
目前的語言教學政策仍然由單語教學原則所主導。不過,越來越多的語言教育學者注意到單語教學不足之處,Cummins(2007)就批評,單語教學原則不但缺乏實證研究,也不符合人類學習的原理,也不符合現代對雙語、多語人心智運作的理解。Cummins(2007: 222)因此主張採取雙語教學策略:“從完全依靠單語教學方法解放出來,就會獲得各式各樣的語言教學機會,透過雙語教學策略,承認雙向語言轉移的現實,並積極的促進學習轉移。”
本文嘗試運用雙語教學策略,透過雙語書的製作,進行雙語教學。我們認為僅用單一強勢語言進行教學,將導致弱勢母語死亡,同時也忽略母語的教育功能和母語人士的語言人權。雙語教學策略超越“選擇華語或是母語”的錯誤兩難,這樣做可以能促進語言的學習轉移,達成雙語互通、語言共存共榮的增益式雙語現象。
本文透過雙語書的製作,希望能在校園建構一個雙語互通的空間,讓社會的多語言現象能在課堂中呈現,營造出語言為資源的正面形象。本文的做法如下:首先,透過學生和家長合作書寫家長的職業介紹,並加上學生自行繪製的圖畫;之後,根據以華語寫成的文本進行翻譯;學生除了和家長一同翻譯之外,也運用台華翻譯軟體和雙語字典協助翻譯;接著在課堂分享翻譯初稿,並藉由翻譯文本比較台語和華語的異同,透過語音、語詞和語法的比較,增進雙向語言學習轉移;最後是製作成多媒體雙語書的階段,學生將圖畫、文本以及錄音檔合併完成多媒體的雙語書。
2012年3月31日 星期六
2012年3月30日 星期五
加研究︰雙語使用者 晚3年失智(自由時報2012/3/31)
http://www.libertytimes.com.tw/2012/new/mar/31/today-int5.htm
加研究︰雙語使用者 晚3年失智
〔本報駐加特派記者張伶銖/溫哥華二十九日報導〕擁有雙語能力除了可促進人際關係、拓展視野外,加拿大多倫多約克大學的最新研究發現,運用兩種語言可防止認知能力退化,延緩罹患失智症的時間。
加拿大最新研究
研究發現,在醫院記錄的失智症(dementia)患者研究對象中,只會說一種語言的老人,被診斷出失智的平均年齡是七十五.四歲,而會說兩種語言的老人,則是直到七十八.六歲才被診斷出失智症。
研究還發現,只說一種語言的老人不僅教育程度高,職業地位也比說雙語的老人高,進一步說明,意味教育或職業對延緩失智發生的效果,並不如語言能力。
約克大學的研究報告二十九日刊登於英國「認知科學趨勢」(Trends in Cognitive Sciences)期刊。
研究人員相信,雙語能力對一個人從兒童到老年的不同人生階段,均有益處,它可以不斷對腦部產生新的刺激,並形成特殊的認知網絡,讓腦部對認知表現的中樞控管更有效率;形諸於外的則是,通曉雙語者可適應交替做不同的事,又能專注於被要求完成的工作,不容易分心。
研究報告主要作者、約克大學心理系教授Ellen Bialystok說,腦部處理不同語言轉換的程序,藉由不斷刺激,可對人們的「認知儲存」(cognitive reserve)產生保護,避免認知能力退化。
加研究︰雙語使用者 晚3年失智
〔本報駐加特派記者張伶銖/溫哥華二十九日報導〕擁有雙語能力除了可促進人際關係、拓展視野外,加拿大多倫多約克大學的最新研究發現,運用兩種語言可防止認知能力退化,延緩罹患失智症的時間。
加拿大最新研究
研究發現,在醫院記錄的失智症(dementia)患者研究對象中,只會說一種語言的老人,被診斷出失智的平均年齡是七十五.四歲,而會說兩種語言的老人,則是直到七十八.六歲才被診斷出失智症。
研究還發現,只說一種語言的老人不僅教育程度高,職業地位也比說雙語的老人高,進一步說明,意味教育或職業對延緩失智發生的效果,並不如語言能力。
約克大學的研究報告二十九日刊登於英國「認知科學趨勢」(Trends in Cognitive Sciences)期刊。
研究人員相信,雙語能力對一個人從兒童到老年的不同人生階段,均有益處,它可以不斷對腦部產生新的刺激,並形成特殊的認知網絡,讓腦部對認知表現的中樞控管更有效率;形諸於外的則是,通曉雙語者可適應交替做不同的事,又能專注於被要求完成的工作,不容易分心。
研究報告主要作者、約克大學心理系教授Ellen Bialystok說,腦部處理不同語言轉換的程序,藉由不斷刺激,可對人們的「認知儲存」(cognitive reserve)產生保護,避免認知能力退化。
2012年3月26日 星期一
著大膽向前行:雙語教育ê必要性
張學謙
咱活tī一個多族群、多語言、多文化ê世界。真可惜,這個世界豐富多元ê語言文化資源kah多樣化ê物種kâng-khóan lóng teh流失、滅種。物種ê流失有chē-chē人teh注意,語言文化多樣性ê失落,其實koh khah嚴重,m̄-koh並無得著夠額ê重視。咱ê世界真正奧妙,萬物互相有牽連,語言、文化kah生物並m̄是個別獨立存在,顛倒是褲帶結作夥、互相相連,宛然是性命共同體。
Chit-má世界上有beh óa六千種ê語言,到21世紀尾,會有90% ê語言消失、滅種去。台灣本土語言流失ê情形mā不止á嚴重,根據鄭良偉ê觀察,台灣人母語滅種ê徵兆,表現tī母語使用人口減少、母語使用場合縮小kap使用母語ê能力減退。
這篇文章欲檢討目前母語教育制度不足ê所在,提出行向雙語教育ê主張。我先講目前母語成做學科無夠ê所在,然後根據雙語發展ê制衡模式,提出強化弱勢語言教育地位kah功能ê主張;紲落對語言互相幫贊ê理論,論證母語ê教育意義;最後閣對語言人權ê觀點討論雙語教育ê必要性。
現行母語教育ê功能kan-na是學校ê一門學科,並無法度挽救消失中ê母語。2001年九年一貫正式實施,將母語提升做正式ê一門學科,一星期只有一節課。學者普遍認為現行ê母語教育無夠額復興母語。曹逢甫認為少量ê母語教學對嚴重流失ê母語,無啥作用,建議“要從根救起,自幼稚園開始實施雙語(母語-國語)教育。”雙語教育並m̄是beh廢除國語,只不過國語無koh再是唯一ê教學語言kah啟蒙教育語言。咱需要母語優先ê雙語教育才有法度挽救流失ê母語。
雙語發展制衡模式ē-tàng用來說明對延續力低ê語言,學校ê語言一定愛是母語優先ê道理。家庭環境、學校環境kah社會制度ê環境是構成個人ê語言接觸網路ê三個重要環境。雙語發展制衡模式認為chia ê 環境會tòe語言社區延續力ê kôan低ê無仝,tī促進增益式ah是削減式雙語現象頂面扮演無仝ê角色。弱勢族群ê增益式雙語現象kan-na當母語tī家庭kah學校環境ê使用超過、抵消第二語言tī社會制度環境ê優勢力量ê時陣,才有可能發生。
第二語言通常是社會ê強勢語言,弱勢語族通常無需要密集ê學校教育就ē-tàng學會曉第二語言能力,第二語言ê溝通能力ē-tàng透過定定接觸社會制度環境(朋友、鄰居、社會活動)kah媒體學習著。第二語言ê認知學業ê語言能力ē-tàng ùi第二語言成做學科ê教學得著發展,這方面ê能力有真chē ē-tàng對第一語言轉換到第二語言。對延續力低ê團體來講,tī家庭kah學校ê大量口語溝通kah讀寫活動是形成增益式雙語現象ê必要條件。
母語是教育ê寶貴資源。不過,以同化做目的ê語言政策定定用母語是學習ê阻礙,來合理化對母語ê壓制kah看輕。這種講法bē堪得學理kah經驗事實ê檢驗。關係母語kah第二語言學習ê關係,語言學習理論有以下重要ê結論:母語是任何語言學習ê基礎,伊有學習轉移ê功效,tī心理上、社會上kah教育上母語lóng是寶貴ê學習資源,絕對m̄是語言學習ê阻礙。
語言學家指出堅強ê母語基礎對學習第二語言絕對有利,透過母語學習著ê知識ē-tàng轉移到第二語言。Cummins ê語言互相幫贊假設指出:第二語言ê學習總是建立tī母語ê基礎頂面,母語m̄-nā m̄是學習ê負擔,顛倒轉是任何語言學習ê資源。
Baker引用Cummins ê語言互相幫贊假設討論學習轉移(transfer)以及隨人獨立(separation)ê觀點對讀寫教育ê啟示。隨人獨立ê觀點認為第二語言ê閱讀決定tī第二語言ê程度,m̄是第一語言ê閱讀能力。根據這個理論,學生需要siōng大量ê第二語言讀寫接觸時間,kā時間了tī閱讀第一語言,對第二語言ê閱讀無幫助。隨人獨立ê觀點接近Cummins ê分離式語言能力ê概念,,也就是講,第一語言kah第二語言是分離ê,無相關。
學習轉移ê觀點,接近Cummins ê共通深層語言能力ê概念,認為第一語言ê讀寫技能kah策略真簡單就ē-tàng轉移到第二語言。以下是一寡真容易學習轉移ê項目﹕解碼kah閱讀策略等ē-tàng類化ê技能,概念kah策略(親像掃描、略讀、對頂下文ioh文意、跳過m̄-bat ê字詞、容忍歧義、閱讀意義、推論…使用背景智識)。學習轉移ê觀點對弱勢族群學生ê讀寫教育學有重要ê啟示。弱勢族群語言教育應當一開始就培養弱勢母語ê讀寫教育,才ē-tàng完全ê發展閱讀所需要ê認知技能kah策略。建立穩固ê母語讀寫技能kah策略了後,就ē-tàng chiâⁿ輕鬆轉移到第二語言。
母語教育權是基本人權。母語教育ê規劃是根據“語言是權利”ê觀點。對弱勢族群來講,語言人權ê目的是要求族語tī社會生活使用ê權利,來延續、發揚族群ê語言kah文化(丘才廉 1994﹕6)。Skutnabb-Kangas et al. (1994:2)bat提出tī個人ê層次,語言人權指ê是﹕
“每一個人無論伊ê母語是多數語言iah是少數語言,lóng ē-tàng積極認同伊ê母語,其他人必須愛尊重伊ê認同。個人有學習母語ê權利,包括以母語成做初等教育ê教學語言ê權利...tī伊所tòa ê國家中,個人也享有學習至少一種官方語言ê權利.....”
母語閣加上華語ê雙語政策tú好符合個人學習母語kah官方語言權利ê要求。政府應當對語言人權ê觀點出發,hō͘母語平等ê地位,規劃並且實施雙語教育,hō͘臺灣ê本土母語教育權利得著確實ê保障。
母語成做教學語言必須量早展開。教師上課時,ē-tàng kā母語當做教學語言,透過結合語言kah內容,來突破目前母語教學時數無夠ê限制。使用母語進行教學m̄-nā ē-tàng提高教學效果,koh ē-tàng促進母語ê保存kah發展。
(本文改寫自佮鄭良偉教授,楊允言教授合寫ê「多語文本、跨語文助讀及翻譯」2.1節,為著欲節省篇幅,省略引用來源。)
咱活tī一個多族群、多語言、多文化ê世界。真可惜,這個世界豐富多元ê語言文化資源kah多樣化ê物種kâng-khóan lóng teh流失、滅種。物種ê流失有chē-chē人teh注意,語言文化多樣性ê失落,其實koh khah嚴重,m̄-koh並無得著夠額ê重視。咱ê世界真正奧妙,萬物互相有牽連,語言、文化kah生物並m̄是個別獨立存在,顛倒是褲帶結作夥、互相相連,宛然是性命共同體。
Chit-má世界上有beh óa六千種ê語言,到21世紀尾,會有90% ê語言消失、滅種去。台灣本土語言流失ê情形mā不止á嚴重,根據鄭良偉ê觀察,台灣人母語滅種ê徵兆,表現tī母語使用人口減少、母語使用場合縮小kap使用母語ê能力減退。
這篇文章欲檢討目前母語教育制度不足ê所在,提出行向雙語教育ê主張。我先講目前母語成做學科無夠ê所在,然後根據雙語發展ê制衡模式,提出強化弱勢語言教育地位kah功能ê主張;紲落對語言互相幫贊ê理論,論證母語ê教育意義;最後閣對語言人權ê觀點討論雙語教育ê必要性。
現行母語教育ê功能kan-na是學校ê一門學科,並無法度挽救消失中ê母語。2001年九年一貫正式實施,將母語提升做正式ê一門學科,一星期只有一節課。學者普遍認為現行ê母語教育無夠額復興母語。曹逢甫認為少量ê母語教學對嚴重流失ê母語,無啥作用,建議“要從根救起,自幼稚園開始實施雙語(母語-國語)教育。”雙語教育並m̄是beh廢除國語,只不過國語無koh再是唯一ê教學語言kah啟蒙教育語言。咱需要母語優先ê雙語教育才有法度挽救流失ê母語。
雙語發展制衡模式ē-tàng用來說明對延續力低ê語言,學校ê語言一定愛是母語優先ê道理。家庭環境、學校環境kah社會制度ê環境是構成個人ê語言接觸網路ê三個重要環境。雙語發展制衡模式認為chia ê 環境會tòe語言社區延續力ê kôan低ê無仝,tī促進增益式ah是削減式雙語現象頂面扮演無仝ê角色。弱勢族群ê增益式雙語現象kan-na當母語tī家庭kah學校環境ê使用超過、抵消第二語言tī社會制度環境ê優勢力量ê時陣,才有可能發生。
第二語言通常是社會ê強勢語言,弱勢語族通常無需要密集ê學校教育就ē-tàng學會曉第二語言能力,第二語言ê溝通能力ē-tàng透過定定接觸社會制度環境(朋友、鄰居、社會活動)kah媒體學習著。第二語言ê認知學業ê語言能力ē-tàng ùi第二語言成做學科ê教學得著發展,這方面ê能力有真chē ē-tàng對第一語言轉換到第二語言。對延續力低ê團體來講,tī家庭kah學校ê大量口語溝通kah讀寫活動是形成增益式雙語現象ê必要條件。
母語是教育ê寶貴資源。不過,以同化做目的ê語言政策定定用母語是學習ê阻礙,來合理化對母語ê壓制kah看輕。這種講法bē堪得學理kah經驗事實ê檢驗。關係母語kah第二語言學習ê關係,語言學習理論有以下重要ê結論:母語是任何語言學習ê基礎,伊有學習轉移ê功效,tī心理上、社會上kah教育上母語lóng是寶貴ê學習資源,絕對m̄是語言學習ê阻礙。
語言學家指出堅強ê母語基礎對學習第二語言絕對有利,透過母語學習著ê知識ē-tàng轉移到第二語言。Cummins ê語言互相幫贊假設指出:第二語言ê學習總是建立tī母語ê基礎頂面,母語m̄-nā m̄是學習ê負擔,顛倒轉是任何語言學習ê資源。
Baker引用Cummins ê語言互相幫贊假設討論學習轉移(transfer)以及隨人獨立(separation)ê觀點對讀寫教育ê啟示。隨人獨立ê觀點認為第二語言ê閱讀決定tī第二語言ê程度,m̄是第一語言ê閱讀能力。根據這個理論,學生需要siōng大量ê第二語言讀寫接觸時間,kā時間了tī閱讀第一語言,對第二語言ê閱讀無幫助。隨人獨立ê觀點接近Cummins ê分離式語言能力ê概念,,也就是講,第一語言kah第二語言是分離ê,無相關。
學習轉移ê觀點,接近Cummins ê共通深層語言能力ê概念,認為第一語言ê讀寫技能kah策略真簡單就ē-tàng轉移到第二語言。以下是一寡真容易學習轉移ê項目﹕解碼kah閱讀策略等ē-tàng類化ê技能,概念kah策略(親像掃描、略讀、對頂下文ioh文意、跳過m̄-bat ê字詞、容忍歧義、閱讀意義、推論…使用背景智識)。學習轉移ê觀點對弱勢族群學生ê讀寫教育學有重要ê啟示。弱勢族群語言教育應當一開始就培養弱勢母語ê讀寫教育,才ē-tàng完全ê發展閱讀所需要ê認知技能kah策略。建立穩固ê母語讀寫技能kah策略了後,就ē-tàng chiâⁿ輕鬆轉移到第二語言。
母語教育權是基本人權。母語教育ê規劃是根據“語言是權利”ê觀點。對弱勢族群來講,語言人權ê目的是要求族語tī社會生活使用ê權利,來延續、發揚族群ê語言kah文化(丘才廉 1994﹕6)。Skutnabb-Kangas et al. (1994:2)bat提出tī個人ê層次,語言人權指ê是﹕
“每一個人無論伊ê母語是多數語言iah是少數語言,lóng ē-tàng積極認同伊ê母語,其他人必須愛尊重伊ê認同。個人有學習母語ê權利,包括以母語成做初等教育ê教學語言ê權利...tī伊所tòa ê國家中,個人也享有學習至少一種官方語言ê權利.....”
母語閣加上華語ê雙語政策tú好符合個人學習母語kah官方語言權利ê要求。政府應當對語言人權ê觀點出發,hō͘母語平等ê地位,規劃並且實施雙語教育,hō͘臺灣ê本土母語教育權利得著確實ê保障。
母語成做教學語言必須量早展開。教師上課時,ē-tàng kā母語當做教學語言,透過結合語言kah內容,來突破目前母語教學時數無夠ê限制。使用母語進行教學m̄-nā ē-tàng提高教學效果,koh ē-tàng促進母語ê保存kah發展。
(本文改寫自佮鄭良偉教授,楊允言教授合寫ê「多語文本、跨語文助讀及翻譯」2.1節,為著欲節省篇幅,省略引用來源。)
2012年3月22日 星期四
FW: 學習多種語言的好處
加拿大人Steve Kaufmann能流利地說十多種語言,包括漢語、日語、西班牙語、義大利語、俄語等,甚至在他55歲之後還學會四門外語。他深知多語的好處。也以學院外語言教學家的身份,游走世界(包括台灣)呼籲改變傳統的語言教學模式;尤其要優先破除7個語言學習的錯誤觀念:
1. 外語不好學?如果不想學,的確難學。學語言要花時間,但並不難。你要做的主要就是不斷地聽和讀,很快就能理解你所學的外語,且不知不覺你就會說。很多人不喜歡外語學習,是因教法不對。
2. 學語言必須要有天賦 ?不對。不管是誰,只要想學,就能學會。荷蘭和瑞典人都會一種以上的語言。他們不可能都有語言天賦。北美的外國運動員學會說英語的速度,快於那些課堂學習英語的人。學外語,重要的是態度,不是能力。
3. 必須身處英語國家才學會英語?實際上,一些北美移民到最後也只會說結巴的英語。但在其他國家的人卻能說流利英語。1968年我住在香港學會普通話,那裏幾乎沒人說普通話。現在有網路,任何人都可接觸到語言材料,還可以下載到ipod聽。所以,地點不是障礙。
4. 只有孩子有學外語的天分?最近研究表明,人類大腦的可塑性能一直保持到老年。成年人掌握大量的母語,學外語比兒童更有優勢。拿我自己來說,從55歲開始,我已經學會4種語言。成年人需要做的只是像孩子那樣樂於嘗試,渴望交流,且不怕被嘲笑。
5. 只有通過課堂教學才能學會外語?課堂教學比較經濟,這種教學歷史悠久,已成為傳統。但對語言學習,效能不彰,且班級人數越多,就越低效。語言不是教會的,而是學會的。語法講解讓人難以理解,更難以運用,而句型練習和課後練習令人生厭。結果很多學生長時間學習外語,還是啞巴。
6. 要注重「說」才能學會外語?不要急著「說」,一旦你學會一門外語,自然有機會說。在這之前,「聽」更重要,而不是說。記住常用句就去說,會讓你突槌。如果你遇到老外,主要是聽對方說,除非你學會對方的語言。總之,不必為學而刻意說外語,而應該為了會說去學外語。
7.我想學外語,但沒時間?排隊、坐車、打電動、做家務或散步你有時間嗎?為什麼不在這些時候用你的ipod聽外語?即便每天只聽10分鐘也沒關係,不久你就能延長到30分鐘。只要你喜歡—像我這樣,時間就會生出來。
1. 外語不好學?如果不想學,的確難學。學語言要花時間,但並不難。你要做的主要就是不斷地聽和讀,很快就能理解你所學的外語,且不知不覺你就會說。很多人不喜歡外語學習,是因教法不對。
2. 學語言必須要有天賦 ?不對。不管是誰,只要想學,就能學會。荷蘭和瑞典人都會一種以上的語言。他們不可能都有語言天賦。北美的外國運動員學會說英語的速度,快於那些課堂學習英語的人。學外語,重要的是態度,不是能力。
3. 必須身處英語國家才學會英語?實際上,一些北美移民到最後也只會說結巴的英語。但在其他國家的人卻能說流利英語。1968年我住在香港學會普通話,那裏幾乎沒人說普通話。現在有網路,任何人都可接觸到語言材料,還可以下載到ipod聽。所以,地點不是障礙。
4. 只有孩子有學外語的天分?最近研究表明,人類大腦的可塑性能一直保持到老年。成年人掌握大量的母語,學外語比兒童更有優勢。拿我自己來說,從55歲開始,我已經學會4種語言。成年人需要做的只是像孩子那樣樂於嘗試,渴望交流,且不怕被嘲笑。
5. 只有通過課堂教學才能學會外語?課堂教學比較經濟,這種教學歷史悠久,已成為傳統。但對語言學習,效能不彰,且班級人數越多,就越低效。語言不是教會的,而是學會的。語法講解讓人難以理解,更難以運用,而句型練習和課後練習令人生厭。結果很多學生長時間學習外語,還是啞巴。
6. 要注重「說」才能學會外語?不要急著「說」,一旦你學會一門外語,自然有機會說。在這之前,「聽」更重要,而不是說。記住常用句就去說,會讓你突槌。如果你遇到老外,主要是聽對方說,除非你學會對方的語言。總之,不必為學而刻意說外語,而應該為了會說去學外語。
7.我想學外語,但沒時間?排隊、坐車、打電動、做家務或散步你有時間嗎?為什麼不在這些時候用你的ipod聽外語?即便每天只聽10分鐘也沒關係,不久你就能延長到30分鐘。只要你喜歡—像我這樣,時間就會生出來。
2012年3月21日 星期三
為甚物你即呢khiáu? 你爲什麽這麼聰明?
為甚物你即呢khiáu? New York時報講,因為你會曉兩種語言。
當然,你若會曉兩種語言的讀寫,猶閣卡khiáu。
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/18/opinion/sunday/the-benefits-of-bilingualism.html?_r=1&emc=eta1
Why Bilinguals Are Smarter Harriet RussellBy YUDHIJIT BHATTACHARJEE
Published: March 17, 2012
DiggRedditTumblrPermalink.
SPEAKING two languages rather than just one has obvious practical benefits in an increasingly globalized world. But in recent years, scientists have begun to show that the advantages of bilingualism are even more fundamental than being able to converse with a wider range of people. Being bilingual, it turns out, makes you smarter. It can have a profound effect on your brain, improving cognitive skills not related to language and even shielding against dementia in old age.
This view of bilingualism is remarkably different from the understanding of bilingualism through much of the 20th century. Researchers, educators and policy makers long considered a second language to be an interference, cognitively speaking, that hindered a child’s academic and intellectual development.
They were not wrong about the interference: there is ample evidence that in a bilingual’s brain both language systems are active even when he is using only one language, thus creating situations in which one system obstructs the other. But this interference, researchers are finding out, isn’t so much a handicap as a blessing in disguise. It forces the brain to resolve internal conflict, giving the mind a workout that strengthens its cognitive muscles.
Bilinguals, for instance, seem to be more adept than monolinguals at solving certain kinds of mental puzzles. In a 2004 study by the psychologists Ellen Bialystok and Michelle Martin-Rhee, bilingual and monolingual preschoolers were asked to sort blue circles and red squares presented on a computer screen into two digital bins — one marked with a blue square and the other marked with a red circle.
In the first task, the children had to sort the shapes by color, placing blue circles in the bin marked with the blue square and red squares in the bin marked with the red circle. Both groups did this with comparable ease. Next, the children were asked to sort by shape, which was more challenging because it required placing the images in a bin marked with a conflicting color. The bilinguals were quicker at performing this task.
The collective evidence from a number of such studies suggests that the bilingual experience improves the brain’s so-called executive function — a command system that directs the attention processes that we use for planning, solving problems and performing various other mentally demanding tasks. These processes include ignoring distractions to stay focused, switching attention willfully from one thing to another and holding information in mind — like remembering a sequence of directions while driving.
Why does the tussle between two simultaneously active language systems improve these aspects of cognition? Until recently, researchers thought the bilingual advantage stemmed primarily from an ability for inhibition that was honed by the exercise of suppressing one language system: this suppression, it was thought, would help train the bilingual mind to ignore distractions in other contexts. But that explanation increasingly appears to be inadequate, since studies have shown that bilinguals perform better than monolinguals even at tasks that do not require inhibition, like threading a line through an ascending series of numbers scattered randomly on a page.
The key difference between bilinguals and monolinguals may be more basic: a heightened ability to monitor the environment. “Bilinguals have to switch languages quite often — you may talk to your father in one language and to your mother in another language,” says Albert Costa, a researcher at the University of Pompeu Fabra in Spain. “It requires keeping track of changes around you in the same way that we monitor our surroundings when driving.” In a study comparing German-Italian bilinguals with Italian monolinguals on monitoring tasks, Mr. Costa and his colleagues found that the bilingual subjects not only performed better, but they also did so with less activity in parts of the brain involved in monitoring, indicating that they were more efficient at it.
The bilingual experience appears to influence the brain from infancy to old age (and there is reason to believe that it may also apply to those who learn a second language later in life).
In a 2009 study led by Agnes Kovacs of the International School for Advanced Studies in Trieste, Italy, 7-month-old babies exposed to two languages from birth were compared with peers raised with one language. In an initial set of trials, the infants were presented with an audio cue and then shown a puppet on one side of a screen. Both infant groups learned to look at that side of the screen in anticipation of the puppet. But in a later set of trials, when the puppet began appearing on the opposite side of the screen, the babies exposed to a bilingual environment quickly learned to switch their anticipatory gaze in the new direction while the other babies did not.
Bilingualism’s effects also extend into the twilight years. In a recent study of 44 elderly Spanish-English bilinguals, scientists led by the neuropsychologist Tamar Gollan of the University of California, San Diego, found that individuals with a higher degree of bilingualism — measured through a comparative evaluation of proficiency in each language — were more resistant than others to the onset of dementia and other symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease: the higher the degree of bilingualism, the later the age of onset.
Nobody ever doubted the power of language. But who would have imagined that the words we hear and the sentences we speak might be leaving such a deep imprint?
Yudhijit Bhattacharjee is a staff writer at Science.
當然,你若會曉兩種語言的讀寫,猶閣卡khiáu。
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/18/opinion/sunday/the-benefits-of-bilingualism.html?_r=1&emc=eta1
Why Bilinguals Are Smarter Harriet RussellBy YUDHIJIT BHATTACHARJEE
Published: March 17, 2012
DiggRedditTumblrPermalink.
SPEAKING two languages rather than just one has obvious practical benefits in an increasingly globalized world. But in recent years, scientists have begun to show that the advantages of bilingualism are even more fundamental than being able to converse with a wider range of people. Being bilingual, it turns out, makes you smarter. It can have a profound effect on your brain, improving cognitive skills not related to language and even shielding against dementia in old age.
This view of bilingualism is remarkably different from the understanding of bilingualism through much of the 20th century. Researchers, educators and policy makers long considered a second language to be an interference, cognitively speaking, that hindered a child’s academic and intellectual development.
They were not wrong about the interference: there is ample evidence that in a bilingual’s brain both language systems are active even when he is using only one language, thus creating situations in which one system obstructs the other. But this interference, researchers are finding out, isn’t so much a handicap as a blessing in disguise. It forces the brain to resolve internal conflict, giving the mind a workout that strengthens its cognitive muscles.
Bilinguals, for instance, seem to be more adept than monolinguals at solving certain kinds of mental puzzles. In a 2004 study by the psychologists Ellen Bialystok and Michelle Martin-Rhee, bilingual and monolingual preschoolers were asked to sort blue circles and red squares presented on a computer screen into two digital bins — one marked with a blue square and the other marked with a red circle.
In the first task, the children had to sort the shapes by color, placing blue circles in the bin marked with the blue square and red squares in the bin marked with the red circle. Both groups did this with comparable ease. Next, the children were asked to sort by shape, which was more challenging because it required placing the images in a bin marked with a conflicting color. The bilinguals were quicker at performing this task.
The collective evidence from a number of such studies suggests that the bilingual experience improves the brain’s so-called executive function — a command system that directs the attention processes that we use for planning, solving problems and performing various other mentally demanding tasks. These processes include ignoring distractions to stay focused, switching attention willfully from one thing to another and holding information in mind — like remembering a sequence of directions while driving.
Why does the tussle between two simultaneously active language systems improve these aspects of cognition? Until recently, researchers thought the bilingual advantage stemmed primarily from an ability for inhibition that was honed by the exercise of suppressing one language system: this suppression, it was thought, would help train the bilingual mind to ignore distractions in other contexts. But that explanation increasingly appears to be inadequate, since studies have shown that bilinguals perform better than monolinguals even at tasks that do not require inhibition, like threading a line through an ascending series of numbers scattered randomly on a page.
The key difference between bilinguals and monolinguals may be more basic: a heightened ability to monitor the environment. “Bilinguals have to switch languages quite often — you may talk to your father in one language and to your mother in another language,” says Albert Costa, a researcher at the University of Pompeu Fabra in Spain. “It requires keeping track of changes around you in the same way that we monitor our surroundings when driving.” In a study comparing German-Italian bilinguals with Italian monolinguals on monitoring tasks, Mr. Costa and his colleagues found that the bilingual subjects not only performed better, but they also did so with less activity in parts of the brain involved in monitoring, indicating that they were more efficient at it.
The bilingual experience appears to influence the brain from infancy to old age (and there is reason to believe that it may also apply to those who learn a second language later in life).
In a 2009 study led by Agnes Kovacs of the International School for Advanced Studies in Trieste, Italy, 7-month-old babies exposed to two languages from birth were compared with peers raised with one language. In an initial set of trials, the infants were presented with an audio cue and then shown a puppet on one side of a screen. Both infant groups learned to look at that side of the screen in anticipation of the puppet. But in a later set of trials, when the puppet began appearing on the opposite side of the screen, the babies exposed to a bilingual environment quickly learned to switch their anticipatory gaze in the new direction while the other babies did not.
Bilingualism’s effects also extend into the twilight years. In a recent study of 44 elderly Spanish-English bilinguals, scientists led by the neuropsychologist Tamar Gollan of the University of California, San Diego, found that individuals with a higher degree of bilingualism — measured through a comparative evaluation of proficiency in each language — were more resistant than others to the onset of dementia and other symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease: the higher the degree of bilingualism, the later the age of onset.
Nobody ever doubted the power of language. But who would have imagined that the words we hear and the sentences we speak might be leaving such a deep imprint?
Yudhijit Bhattacharjee is a staff writer at Science.
2012年3月15日 星期四
我的學生寫的七字仔
我的學生,許秀金寫的七字仔,伊今年68歲,咧讀台語所。
教學認真來引��(chhoā)
句句重點受益大
感謝用心共阮磨
論文才袂(bē)寫走差
為著台文代代湠
毋驚喙焦佮喉渴
感謝��(chhoā)阮行過岸
師恩難忘囥心肝
教學認真來引��(chhoā)
句句重點受益大
感謝用心共阮磨
論文才袂(bē)寫走差
為著台文代代湠
毋驚喙焦佮喉渴
感謝��(chhoā)阮行過岸
師恩難忘囥心肝
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